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Faults of many types and causes may appear on electric power systems. many of us in our homes have seen frayed lamp cords which permitted the two conductors of the cord to come in contact with each other. when this occurs ,there is a resulting flash ,and if breaker or fuse equipment functions properly, the circuit is opened. overhead lines ,for the most part, are constructed of bare conductors .these are sometimes accidentally brought together by action of wind, sleet, trees, cranes, airplanes, or damage to supporting structures. Over voltages due to lightning or switching may cause flashover of supporting or from conductor to conductor. CONTAMINATION on insulators sometimes results in flashover even during normal voltage conditions. the conductors of underground cables are separated from each other and from ground by solid insulation ,which may be oil-impregnated paper or a plastic such as polyethylene .these materials undergo some deterioration with age, particularly if overloads on the cables have resulted in their operation at elevated temperature.!!!!any small void present in the body of the insulating material will result in ionization of the gas contained therein, the products of which react unfavorably with the insulating properties, and short circuits will develop between the cabel conductors . the possibility of cable failure is increased if lightning or switching produces transient voltage of abnormally high values between the conductors. transformer failures may be the result of insulation deterioration combined with over voltages due to lightning or switching transients. short circuits due to insulation failure between adjacent turns of the same winding may result from suddenly applied over voltages. major insulation may fail, permitting arcs to be established between primary and secondary windings or between a winding and grounded metal parts such as the core or tank. generators may fail due to breakdown of the insulation between adjacent turns in the same slot, resulting in a short circuit in a single turn of the grounded. insulation breakdown may also occur between one of the windings and the grounded steel structure in which the coils are embedded. breakdown between different windings lying in the same slot results in short-circuiting extensive sections of machine.　balanced three-phase faults, like balanced three-phase loads, may be handled on a lineto-neutral basis or on an equivalent single-phase basis. problems may be solved either in terms of volts, amperes, and ohms. the handing of faults on single-phase lines is of course identical to the method of the handling three-phase faults on an equivalent single-phase basis.